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From Africa to the Caribbean

The first European to arrive in the Caribbean was the explorer Christopher Columbus in 1492.  Sponsored by Spain he was seeking a Westerly trade route to India and the Spice Islands (known as the East Indies). Instead of finding this route he found the Caribbean Islands which he named the West Indies.  It was quickly realised that these islands were full of possibilities to increase wealth for Spain.

European settlers were sent to govern and exploit the islands.  The native communities were treated very badly, enslaved, treated brutally and many were killed.  The Arawak Indian community was wiped out by European illnesses they had no immunity to. The Carib Indian community constantly battled against the intruders.  To make the islands profitable a reliable workforce was needed.  The Portuguese had started exploring the coast of Africa and had begun trading African people as slaves.  To meet demand for labour in their colonies in the Americas and other European colonies the trade in enslaved African peoples to European owners increased.

For the next 300 years the major European countries increased their wealth because of their involvement in the slave trade.

The British in the Caribbean

In 1562 John Hawkins a British Naval Commander set sail for Sierra Leone where he had 300 African people captured. He set sail for the Americas and traded the captives for pearls, hides and sugar. Queen Elizabeth 1 was initially horrified at the trade but was persuaded by the enormous profits made in the transaction to allow the trade to continue. Following British monarchs endorsed the slave trade with Royal commissions.

The British began to claim their own colonies and develop settlements and plantations.  This often meant conflict with other European nations including the Spanish, Dutch and the French.

In 1605 Barbados was claimed as a British colony and a settlement was established by 1624.  Around the same time settlements were also established at St Christopher (St Kitts) and Nevis and in the Leeward Islands.  In 1633 Antigua and Montserrat became British possessions as did the Bahamas in 1646 and Jamaica in 1655.  British influence increased throughout the 18th Century. Sugar cane plantations were established all over the islands and the main source of labour was African slaves purchased by the plantation owners. 

A Spoonful of Sugar

In 17th Century Europe and Britain the newly fashionable luxury drinks of tea, coffee and chocolate were made a lot more popular by the addition of sugar.  The demand for sugar soared. In 1700 in Britain the average consumption of sugar was 4 pounds (weight) per person, by 1800 the consumption had increased to 18 pounds per person. 

At the same time the number of slaves transported from Africa also increased greatly.  It is estimated that at least one third of the slaves transported were carried on British ships. A trade triangle was established with British goods being traded in Africa for slaves, the slaves were transported to the Americas and West Indies and sugar, tobacco, rice and rum and cotton were traded for the slaves, and then sold with enormous profits in Britain and Europe. Britain became very rich as a result of this trade. 

In Britain from the 1760s a campaign to abolish the slave trade led by both Black and White abolitionists culminated in an Act of Parliament in 1807 to end the Transatlantic slave trade.  It was not 1833 that enslaved Africans were given their freedom in the Caribbean territories.

From the Caribbean to Britain

The British colonies in the West Indies imposed British traditions, language and religion.  African traditions and cultures were supressed.

During the First and Second World wars Britain recruited peoples from its many colonies across the world including the Caribbean to work in the armed forces, and in the dangerous work of making munitions.

After the Second World War there was high unemployment in the Caribbean and the cost of living doubled.  A devastating hurricane in 1951 added to the problems.  People knew employment was available in Britain and some had worked there during the war.

In the late 1940s people emigrated on their own initiative.  By the early 1950s Britain had established a system of direct recruiting, exploiting the economic slump in the Caribbean to solve its own labour problems. 

After 1948

In 1948 the British Nationality Act gave citizenship rights to all those born in the United Kingdom and colonies, whether or not these colonies had become independent countries. Former colonies had been gaining independence from 1914. Britain established the Commonwealth to maintain links and encourage trade.

After the Second World War there was a shortage of labour in Britain.  European people who could not return to their own country for political reasons were invited to settle.  However, this did not solve the problem so people from the Commonwealth were invited to come to Britain.  The people from the Caribbean had the right of entry, the right to work and to settle in Britain.

London Transport, the British Hotel and Restaurants Association and the new National Health Service led the way in directly recruiting people to come to Britain to work. 

Working in Britain

During the 1950s job opportunities in Britain were offered world-wide for both skilled and unskilled workers. By the early 1960s the demand for labour was declining.  Social problems and poverty increased.  Fascist groups formed reflecting the dissatisfaction and focused their prejudice against the black community.

Racial Prejudice

This newspaper article was part of a series in the Daily Mirror in 1958 written by the Leeds playwright Keith Waterhouse to try and counteract the ignorance and prejudice in Britain against people of colour. It begins 'People are human beings even though they come in different colours.'

1962 Commonwealth Immigrants Act

The Government reacted with the 1962 Commonwealth Immigrants Act.  This forced immigrant workers to decide between settling in Britain or returning to their original home.  Many people came to Britain to join their families before the right of entry was removed. 

The aim of the Act was to reduce the number of people emigrating from Commonwealth countries including the Caribbean, India and Pakistan.  It took away the citizenship rights established by the 1948 Nationality Act.

The 1962 Act applied to all British subjects EXCEPT those born in Britain or holding a passport issued in Britain.

Commonwealth British subjects were allowed into Britain for the following reasons:

•  if they had an employment voucher
•  if they were full-time students
•  if they could support themselves without working

The employment vouchers were issued to those with definite jobs to come to and for those with skills and qualifications needed in Britain. Up to 1965 an employment voucher could be obtained by those without skills or a job offer, but after 1965 this was ceased and the number of vouchers limited. 

Immigration officers also had the power to refuse entrance to those deemed undesirable either on medical grounds or through criminal convictions or in case of a deemed threat to National Security. 

Further Legislation

Legislation was passed by following governments to try and tackle problems of racial discrimination. 

• The Race Relations Act 1965 prohibited racial discrimination in public, made it unlawful to stir up  racial hatred and created the Race Relations Board to deal with complaints.
• The Race Relations Act 1968 made it unlawful to racially discriminate in the provision of goods, services, facilities, in employment; in trade unions; in housing and in advertising.
• The Commonwealth Act 1968 tried to limit the problem by limiting the number of black people: Only those with a British passport AND a parent or grandparent born or adopted in Britain OR those who had British citizenship could now enter Britain.
• The Immigration Appeal Act 1969 made it possible for people to appeal against decisions made about entry into Britain, the removal of illegal immigrants, and deportation and exclusion.  It also stated that every Commonwealth person intending to come to Britain must get an entry clearance certificate before leaving their own country.
  

Employment in Britain

There was a post-war labour crisis in Britain. Some British companies actively recruited in the Caribbean.

'You had people coming from England, sponsors coming from England, recruiting for work. They were recruiting nurses, bus conductors and people for the air force and the army.'

The types of work available to Caribbean people included mechanic, chamber maid, bus conductor, railway porter, nurses, textile workers.  Many people came to Britain with skills and qualifications but were unable to obtain the work that used their skills.  They often ended up doing unskilled jobs.

The photograph is of a Huddersfield bus conductor taken in 1957.